Siege warfare was a prominent feature of medieval Europe, with armies and kingdoms constantly seeking to gain military dominance through the most advanced technologies. Among the numerous innovations in warfare of this era, the development of siege weapons stands out as one of the most significant.
Medieval armies employed a variety of siege weapons that could be utilized to breach castle walls, demolish fortifications, and ultimately defeat enemy ground forces.
The effectiveness of these siege weapons played a vital role in turning the tide of medieval battles and wars. In this article, we will explore the top 7 deadliest medieval siege weapons and their impact on the battlefields of medieval Europe.
Battering Ram
The purpose of the Battering Ram during medieval times was to demolish fortifications, masonry walls, and wooden barriers. It was composed of a robust and sizable log carried by a group of people who then vigorously pushed it against the obstacle.
The force generated by the battering ram was enough to cause damage to its intended target. These siege engines were potent in battle and evolved from being just logs carried by soldiers to having a fire-resistant and arrow-proof encasing with a mounted canopy and wheels.
During the Iron Age, battering rams were used with a log hanging from a wheeled frame made of ropes or chains. The ram’s point was usually strengthened with a metal head or cap while the shaft had reinforcing metal bands.
In Carthage, Vitruvius talked about another type of ram called “testudo” that had a wooden base with wheels and a wooden superstructure, which was very slow. Some battering rams in Assyrian times used wet hides for protection and chains to free the ram.
Battering rams were widely utilized in many battles and wars such as the siege of Plataea, the Selenius siege of Sicily, the destruction of Jerusalem by Romans, several Crusades battles, the Sack of Rome, and various sieges of Constantinople. Medieval battering rams were either slung from ropes and chains or supported by rollers, making them faster and more powerful in striking walls or doors.
Siege Tower
The Siege Tower, a medieval siege weapon, was designed to offer protection to attackers as they approached a fortress’s walls. These structures were rectangular with four wheels, and as tall as or even taller than the walls, to accommodate archers.
Due to their wooden construction, many siege towers were covered in iron or fresh animal hides to prevent fire hazards. Inside a siege tower, there were spearmen, swordsmen, pikemen, archers, and crossbowmen. Defending catapults frequently targeted these large towers due to their size.
Siege towers have been utilized since the 11th century BCE by the Assyrians and Babylonians. The oldest known record of a siege tower belongs to Ashurnasirpal II, from the Neo-Assyrian empire during the 9th century BCE.
Eventually, the utilization of siege towers spread throughout the Mediterranean. By the 8th century BC, they were being used by the Kingdom of Kush as housing for archers and slingers during the siege of Memphis.
The Helepolis, the most massive siege tower of antiquity, was utilized during the siege of Rhodes in 305 BCE. It could reach heights of 40 meters and widths of 20 meters, equivalent to nine stories of people, catapults, and ballistae. These engines were operated by around 200 soldiers and relied on the use of rack and pinion to move.
Unfortunately, the Rhodes Helepolis was ultimately defeated when the defenders flooded the ground leading to the wall, which created a moat, causing the tower to become bogged down in the mud.
The medieval era saw the siege tower at its peak. According to historical accounts, a single tower was utilized by 200 archers and 11 catapults during the siege of Kenliworth Castle in 1266. The rise of large cannons marked the decline of siege towers alongside high walls as a means of fortification. Nonetheless, siege towers persisted through battery towers made of wood that were deployed for artillery mounting such as in the case of the siege of Kazan in 1552.
Catapult
A machine that is engineered to launch projectiles is called a catapult. This device, which has different variations in designs and techniques, has earned the nickname “shield-piercer”. The most commonly recognized type is the one that utilizes a long arm to throw the projectile through tension created by a twisting mechanism.
For the projectile to fly through the air, the arm is pulled down to generate potential energy before being released. Different versions of this device have been given specific names, such as mangonel, onager, and ballista.
The use of catapults can be traced back to around 400 BCE in China and Greece, where they were used to throw stones, spears, or darts. Another version of the device, the trebuchet, was developed later on. Although any machine resembling a catapult might fall under the term “catapult,” it remains the more commonly used label.
Trebuchet
The trebuchet is a gravity-powered war machine that employs a projectile-loaded sling and a counterweight on a pole to generate the necessary force. It comprises a platform, a pole with a loaded sling, and a counterweight that is lifted and released.
Historical records suggest that the trebuchet was used for centuries in China, Greece, and Europe, particularly in the medieval era. The Trebuchets were also widely used in the holy land during the Crusades.
The invaders positioned their trebuchets outside their enemies’ fortresses to hurl heavy boulders and other ammunition for demolishing large structures like castle walls and doors. Although the trebuchet belongs to the family of catapults, several different types of catapults were in use even before the trebuchet was invented.
Mangonel
The Romans developed the mangonel around 400 BCE as a lightweight alternative to the ballista. While it may not be as precise as the ballista, it can launch projectiles further than the trebuchet, with an impressive range of up to 1300 ft.
The term “mangonel” comes from the Latin term “manganon”, meaning “engine of war”. It consisted of one arm made from timber, and projectiles were hurled from a bowl-shaped bucket at the end of the arm. This type of catapult was relatively simple to manufacture, and could sometimes be fitted with wheels for greater mobility.
The trebuchet was more accurate than the mangonel due to its ability to hurl projectiles on a higher trajectory and lower velocity. Unlike trebuchets, the primary purpose of mangonels was to destroy walls rather than to hurl projectiles over them.
They were capable of launching various objects, including rocks, burning objects, and even dead animals or people to demoralize and intimidate the enemy. Despite its capabilities, mangonel was more suitable for field battles.
Ballista
During the Middle Ages, a formidable siege weapon known as the ballista was utilized to launch sizeable arrows or bolts at enemy fortifications. The device, resembling a colossal crossbow, was installed on a frame or tripod and could be manned by a team of soldiers or engineers.
The ballista’s firing mechanism was powered by twisted ropes or sinews. Soldiers would yank the cords back and secure them in place before putting a large bolt or arrow on the firing mechanism. Upon release of the trigger, the ropes would rapidly snap forward, launching the projectile at a high velocity.
Ballistas had a long-range capacity, capable of firing projectiles at over 500 meters and penetrating dense walls or armor. They were incredibly effective against infantry units, as a single bolt could strike multiple targets amongst tightly packed ranks.
The ancient Greeks are credited for inventing the ballista, perhaps as early as the 4th century BCE. Afterward, the Romans widely adopted and enhanced it, extensively employing it in their military endeavors. From the 5th century to the 15th century, the ballista was extensively used throughout the Middle Ages.
As time progressed, design and firing mechanisms were variously adjusted. It found immense use in siege warfare across Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Also, it was a common sight in naval combat, where ships had ballistas installed on their decks, firing bolts at enemy vessels.
A team of soldiers would typically operate the ballista by using ropes or sinews to draw back the firing mechanism, which would then be locked in position. After loading and aiming the machine towards a target, one soldier would release the trigger, causing the firing mechanism to swiftly launch the projectile towards the target with great force.
Ballistas were versatile in their application, being able to operate on the ground and also mounted on towers or other high locations to offer further range and precision. These weapons were often used alongside other siege weapons such as trebuchets, catapults, and battering rams to aid in breaching the fortifications of castles and other fortified structures.
Bombard
Bombards were a form of artillery used during the Middle Ages and the early modern period. Typically, these large caliber muzzle-loading cannons launched round stone projectiles to destroy enemy fortifications during sieges.
Most bombard examples are constructed using iron and utilizing gunpowder to launch the projectiles. The Dardanelles Gun, Mons Meg, and the handheld bombard are well-known examples of bombards.
In the early to mid-14th century, the term “bombard” was used to refer to any type of gun. It was then applied exclusively to larger cannons during the 14th to 15th centuries.
The oldest known image of a bombard can be found in the Dazu Rock Carvings, which date back to ancient China. England started utilizing cannons during the early 14th century, according to records. King Edward III deployed field artillery at the Battle of Crecy in 1346. The English captured a possible piece of artillery from a French ship at Sluys as early as 1340.
Bombards were typically constructed by first creating a wooden core that was then surrounded by iron bars. Afterward, iron hoops were driven over the bars to completely cover and surround them.
The entire structure was then hammered together while still hot at temperatures reaching approximately 2,500 °F (1,400 °C). Forge welding is possible at temperatures nearly white hot, between 2,500 °F (1,400 °C) and 2,700 °F (1,500 °C).
As the rings cooled, they formed tightly over the bars to secure them in place. To complete the process, the wooden core was incinerated, and a one-piece cast was attached. This intricate process required a highly skilled forge worker who could work quickly and with precision using a hammer.